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Oxygen’s journey spans centuries, stretching back to Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Joseph Priestley in the 1770s. Once folks figured out how to separate oxygen from air, the practical race began. The Linde process in the late 1800s changed things. Suddenly, factories embraced massive oxygen storage tanks, and metalworkers relied on bottled gas to cut and weld steel. Liquid oxygen rolled in later—think wartime rocket fuel, medical tanks, and labs needing ultra-cold environments. Throughout, oxygen’s rise mirrored industry’s hunger for efficiency and innovation. Society’s need to bring this gas into cylinders and big cryo tanks has only grown, underlining how basic scientific curiosity translates into the backbone for everything from hospitals to wastewater treatment.
Oxygen—compressed and liquefied—comes off as an industrial staple, not some obscure specialty. Gas suppliers fill cylinders at high pressure, shipping those steel blue tanks to welders, hospitals, and research labs. Liquefied oxygen, super-cooled below -183°C, rides in double-walled dewars or tanker trucks. Purity ranges from medical-grade at 99.5+% to industrial cuts around 99%. Each batch needs tough inspection. Impurity levels—nitrogen, argon, trace hydrocarbons—make a world of difference in certain processes. On label, those differences tell end-users what they’re working with, and which safety rules to follow.
Oxygen stands out because its uses stem straight from its physical and chemical traits. As a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, its density beats air, sitting at about 1.429 g/L at standard temperature and pressure. Liquefying this gas creates a pale blue, intensely cold liquid, boiling at -183°C, with a density of roughly 1.14 g/cm³. Chemically, oxygen’s reactivity shaped much of modern chemistry—supporting combustion, rust, and metabolism alike. Diatomic oxygen, O₂, marks the stable, everyday form; under lab pressure, oxygen can even shift into O₃ (ozone) or fancy allotropes under extreme force. Since oxygen makes up 21% of Earth’s atmosphere by volume and dissolves in water, it remains available if you have the right tools and know-how.
Gas cylinders carrying oxygen wear all sorts of stickers, tags, and color codes. Anyone handling this material will spot green, blue, or white bands and a giant “OXYGEN” label. Pressure ratings matter—typical cylinders run from 150 to 200 bar, sometimes higher on specialty lines. Medical-grade cylinders staple on flow regulators and precise valve threads to fit bedside units or ambulances; fire ratings and hydrostatic test dates tell users if the steel or aluminum canisters are still safe. Liquefied oxygen containers carry vent valves, pressure relief systems, and thermal insulation to curb accidental loss or boil-off. Regulatory codes from ISO, DOT, or country-specific bodies shape much of this, layering extra requirements for transport, identification, and risk communication.
Industry rarely pulls oxygen straight from small labs any more. Air gets sucked in, then run through mechanical compressors and filtration beds to yank out dust, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Fractional distillation, performed in tall, cold columns, takes over and divides atmospheric air into nitrogen, argon, and oxygen streams. The heavier oxygen trickles down by itself, cooled until it turns liquid. Cryogenic pumps move it to storage or fill stations, where it boils off into high-pressure gas cylinders or reserves for tanker trucks. Membrane separation and pressure-swing adsorption also get used—especially where smaller footprints or on-site systems make sense. Those methods rely more on selective permeability and zeolite beds for separating oxygen from air, skipping the cold steps.
No other element matches oxygen’s appetite for chemical reaction. Its age-old partnership with fire remains textbook, driving the combustion of fuels everywhere from steel foundries to hospitals managing oxygen therapy and anesthesia. When pumped into furnaces, oxygen turbocharges heat and speed, shrinking cycles in glassmaking, smelting, and even waste incineration. At lower pressures, oxygen reacts with simple hydrocarbons, making everything from fertilizers to plastics. Ozone generation (O₃) branches out for specialty uses like water disinfection and power station exhaust cleanup. Sometimes, trace gases slip into the pipeline—helium for deep-sea breathing mixes, argon for unique welding—each batch tailored for tight tolerances. No small number of scientists have spent a career figuring out how those chemical tweaks improve yield or surgical outcomes.
Suppliers rarely stick to “oxygen,” switching up terms depending on region or application. Liquid O₂, LOX, or Oxy appear in aerospace supply catalogs, while industrial trade references rattle off compressed oxygen, medical oxygen, or technical oxygen. Medical networks flag their tanks “USP Oxygen.” Military tanks carry “aviator’s breathing oxygen.” Liquefied oxygen, branded LOX on bulk deliveries, supports everything from NASA’s engines to hospital oxygen generators. Folks in chemistry see labels like “dioxogen” for O₂ in scholarly papers. That long list of names and codes reflects how broad the impact lies, more than just the element—it’s an entire trade.
Nothing wakes up a health and safety officer like loose oxygen in the workplace. Pure oxygen isn’t flammable, but everything else burns like fury with enough O₂ around. Grease, oil, or even trace fabrics can ignite and go up fast. Welding shops know to keep oxygen tanks vertical, chained to a bench, and away from any combustible station. Medical facilities set up strict protocols for portable tanks, wall outlets, and home oxygen users. Valve fittings get inspected for leaks—oxygen under high pressure slips through the tiniest crack, risking explosion if mixed with hydrocarbons. Regulatory bodies like OSHA, NFPA, and their global cousins lay out tight handling requirements: color-coding, storage separation, and regular hydrostatic tests. Ground staff use only “oxygen-compatible” lubricants and seals, and never smoke near an active tank. These measures sprung up from harsh experience—no one forgets the aftermath of an oxygen-fed fire.
Walk through a hospital, and oxygen lines snake everywhere—patients with lung problems can’t live without it. Ambulances haul their own supply. Factories pour oxygen straight into furnaces to force steel or copper out of ore. Wastewater plants bubble oxygen through tanks to keep bacteria thriving, breaking down sludge. Diving shops fill tanks for deep-sea adventurers, balancing oxygen-nitrogen mixtures to keep folks safe under pressure. Rocket engineers pour liquid oxygen into giant tanks, mixing it with fuel for launches. Glassmakers use pure oxygen to get hotter flames and cleaner product. Intensive fish farms introduce dissolved oxygen to boost yields, keeping water full of life regardless of crowding. Firefighters carry oxygen in rescue gear. Winemakers even use it for fermentation control. The more you look around, the more uses you spot—from the emergency room to the launch pad.
Groups all over the world keep chewing on stubborn oxygen questions. Can new membranes or adsorbents create oxygen-rich streams using less power or space? Are cheaper, greener ways to liquefy and transfer oxygen possible? Aerospace labs tinker with denser, safer storage methods to push rockets higher or submarines deeper. Bioengineers look for ways to deliver oxygen directly to tissues, treating wounds or growing organs. Chronic lung disease centers chase after lightweight, longer-lasting oxygen concentrators to give patients freedom to walk outside. Even at the atomic level, scientists probe how oxygen atoms dance with other elements on new catalysts for hydrogen fuel cells or carbon capture. As research uncovers more, old methods update—safer valves, digital flow meters, and smart tank tracking cut waste and risk. Some of this work already hits the market, feeding a cycle where lab discoveries fuel next-generation products.
Breathing extra oxygen saves a life in the ER. Pump too much in over a long stretch, cells start taking damage. Oxygen toxicity shows up during deep-sea diving (where pressure cranks O₂ levels high) or ICU stays. Central nervous system signs include twitching, headaches, or even seizures below the waves. Long-term lung exposure can harden tissues—especially in newborns or patients on ventilators. Medical centers dial in doses using pulse oximeters and blood gas analysis, chasing benefits without crossing into harm. Scientists study exact pathways to spot who’s most at risk and design safer protocols. Training, monitoring, and strict hospital standards help teams keep oxygen at life-saving—not dangerous—levels both in clinical care and industrial settings.
Industry and medicine both bet on oxygen’s growing importance. Environmental rules push factories to control emissions—oxygen supports cleaner burning and better waste remediation. Hospitals keep expanding home therapy and remote diagnostic tools, leaning on compact oxygen concentrators and telemedicine. Energy companies eye oxygen for hydrogen generation, fuel cells, and as part of carbon-capture solutions. As air pollution and pandemic threats keep city planners busy, strong supply chains for medical gases matter more than ever. Researchers investigate storing and delivering oxygen without bulky tanks, blending smart materials with sensors to prevent accidents or waste. Each step forward keeps this gas at the center of modern infrastructure and innovation. There’s plenty of work ahead—sharper science, tougher standards, greater public scrutiny. The ways oxygen ties into daily life will only deepen, reminding everyone how invisible molecules wind up shaping safety, progress, and health.
Oxygen, stored under pressure or in liquid form, can feel like a quiet hero in emergency rooms and ambulances. Working as a nurse, I regularly saw tanks lined up like sentinels behind trauma beds. EMTs and doctors reach for those cylinders when someone struggles to breathe or slips into shock. Hospitals don’t just use oxygen during dramatic moments. Long-term patients with chronic lung disease rely on oxygen to keep tissues alive. Premature infants, folks living with COPD, or those during surgery – their survival links right to these cold steel containers. The technology isn’t flashy, but it saves lives.
Factories often burn cleaner and faster with a boost from compressed or liquefied oxygen. Steelmakers, for one, jump to liquid oxygen to raise production temperatures during smelting. Mining crews and chemical manufacturers also keep the gas handy. By mixing oxygen into burners, they slice through metal with a torch, weld beams together, or speed up chemical reactions. According to the International Energy Agency, using industrial oxygen can shave energy costs and cut carbon emissions, if handled right. I remember touring a glassworks, where oxygen-fed flames turned sand to glass much quicker than old-fashioned methods.
Pilots flying above 10,000 feet keep oxygen masks within reach. At high altitudes, the air thins out so much that the brain slows and reaction times tank. Liquefied oxygen keeps pilots alert and awake. Deep-sea divers face the opposite problem – crushing pressure, but still the need for breathable air. Pressurized oxygen mixes, loaded aboard diving bells and submarines, hold off the dizziness and confusion of hypoxia. After years as a weekend diver, the sound of compressed oxygen hissing into a tank always signals safety and adventure.
Firefighters don’t just battle flames – they duck into buildings filled with smoke and dangerous gases. Breathing apparatus relies on high-purity oxygen, sealed in small, tough canisters. These allow for precious minutes inside smoke-filled rooms and collapsed tunnels. Rescue teams who respond to collapsed mines or industrial accidents also strap on tanks of compressed gas to keep oxygen flowing to lungs, keeping crews on their feet during daring rescues.
Chronic illnesses often force patients to bring the hospital home. Portable oxygen tanks let people with lung or heart conditions live more freely, take walks around the block, or sleep without gasping. Companies now design lightweight, refillable canisters anyone can operate. From personal experience caring for a relative with severe asthma, I saw how these tanks change daily life – letting people join family gatherings or even vacation outdoors.
Oxygen isn’t just a tool for people; it keeps water healthy too. Fish farms and wastewater plants pump liquefied oxygen into ponds and tanks to fuel bacteria that clean water or help fish grow. Studies from agricultural extensions show that this extra oxygen translates into faster cleanup and healthier fish without relying on chemical additives.
Handling oxygen involves strict safety rules. Leaks or excessive pressure in storage tanks pose risks. Training and better monitoring technology help prevent disasters. Still, for families, workers, and professionals, compressed and liquefied oxygen remains an everyday life-saver, quietly bridging the gap between danger and recovery, efficiency and waste.
Oxygen cylinders turn up everywhere from hospitals and ambulances to welding shops. I’ve seen paramedics haul them up apartment stairs, and I’ve watched welders lock them into trolleys. Every time, the same rules echo: treat them with respect, or someone gets hurt. People don’t realize how a simple mistake—like an oily rag near the valve—can turn a lifesaving tank into a rocket or a torch.
Each cylinder packs pressure so high it can punch a hole in a wall. I once helped unload oxygen tanks at a small clinic. The manager drilled into us: always keep the cylinder upright and chained to a stable surface. If one tips over and the top snaps off, it’ll shoot across a room. The risk isn’t theory. The Compressed Gas Association reports injuries every year from unsecured cylinders flying around. Keeping tanks locked up or chained is not overkill—it’s just good sense.
Oxygen itself doesn’t burn, but it feeds flames like nothing else. A friend working home care once got lazy and wiped the valve with a lubricated cloth. He learned fast. Oils and grease plus pure oxygen mean explosions. Hospitals and training manuals say it straight—never let oil, grease, or lotion touch valves, regulators, or your hands. I always check my hands before moving a regulator, even if I’m in a hurry. It’s a rule that’s saved lives.
I spent years volunteering in emergency shelters, often around tanks in confined rooms. Even a slow leak creates a hazard: not enough oxygen, and folks start to feel drowsy and confused. Too much, and fire needs only a spark. Ventilation means survival. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the National Fire Protection Association both stress this point. Windows open, fans running—if you smell oxygen, take action. Don’t wait or ignore the odor.
Label tanks clearly. Don’t swap out “empty” for “full”—both need proper storage. Caps belong on tanks not in use. If a cylinder looks damaged, I don’t touch it, and I’d tell anyone—don’t take chances. Anything from a small dent to corrosion around the valve deserves attention from a pro. Most accidents happen because someone thought they could just make do. Years ago, a repair guy told me, “Shortcuts mean hospital visits.”
It doesn’t matter if you’re in healthcare or a hobbyist building a metal sculpture. If you handle oxygen, get actual training. I sat through my share of “boring” safety lectures, but real stories and hands-on practice drill home the point. Seeing demonstrations of what goes wrong hits harder than reading rules.
Most places treat safety drills as box-checking. Walk the walk, though, and people notice. If you see someone fumbling with a tank, step in. If that’s uncomfortable, remember you could prevent an injury or worse. The next person who needs that oxygen could be your family, a coworker, or you. Setting the example means folks around you stay alert, and in high-risk situations, that’s everything.
Oxygen supports life, yet outside the body it demands focus and respect. In my early days working around hospitals, I watched staff go about daily routines with a comfort that came only after learning harsh lessons about dangerous shortcuts. A simple spark around an open oxygen cylinder — a dropped wrench or a quick zip of synthetic clothing — can turn the air itself into fuel. No one forgets an accident like that, even years later.
It sounds almost obvious that tall, round cylinders will roll if left loose. Still, I’ve seen more than one cylinder lying in a hallway because a tie-down strap broke or never got fastened. All oxygen tanks should stay upright and secured by chains or purpose-built racks. Putting them in a corner isn’t enough — a falling cylinder can break off its valve, creating a metal rocket in seconds.
Keep everything metal away from the valves. Brass and steel can produce sparks, and even those little bits of friction can spell trouble. Cylinders need to stand in an open, dry spot away from direct sunlight. Store them far from oil and grease. I remember an old crew chief telling a rookie, “Even finger grease can turn the smallest leak into a torch.” Those words stuck with me.
Oxygen should live in a cool, shaded area well above freezing and under 52°C (about 125°F). Heat expands gas inside the tank, and a hot tank may vent on its own. In a garage or supply room, sunlight sneaking in through a window can push a cylinder to dangerous pressure. A simple curtain or shade on the storage room window can prevent headaches down the line.
Oxygen leaks don’t ask for permission. A slow hiss from a loose valve builds up over time, turning a storeroom into a hidden hazard. Proper airflow keeps leaks from collecting, cuts down on fire risk, and reduces the odds of oxygen-rich air sticking around. Always make sure storerooms have working fans or vents, and never use ordinary household electrical equipment near cylinders.
Oxygen belongs away from flammable stuff. I once saw a neighbor stack full tanks near garden chemicals and gas cans — a situation begging for trouble. Keep oxygen tanks at least 20 feet from anything that might burn, or use a proper non-combustible barrier between them. Don’t keep empty cylinders mixed in with full ones. Empties might still hold pressure and should be kept in their own marked spot.
Respect for oxygen doesn’t come from reading rule books, but from hearing the stories of those who got it wrong. Mark storage areas. Train everyone, from new hires to veterans, to spot rust, loose hoods, and valve damage. Walk the storeroom from time to time and fix anything that seems off. Even those who only move a cylinder once a year need reminding — complacency sets in faster than most think.
Treating every oxygen cylinder as a possible danger sounds strict, but nurses, firefighters, and welders know better than most what goes wrong when steps get skipped. In my experience, trouble never announces itself. Staying ahead of it makes all the difference.
Oxygen in the tank seems timeless as long as it’s under pressure. Folks stocking up for home healthcare, welders stacking tanks in the workshop, or climbers packing supplies for high-altitude pursuits—most assume a full tank spells forever. That's not the full story. Whether oxygen comes compressed in steel or aluminum cylinders or rests as a chilled liquid in a cryogenic flask, time, storage conditions, and tank integrity still carry weight.
I’ve handled oxygen tanks across some fraught winter emergencies and muggy summers, and what sticks out most: the container’s health matters as much as the gas inside. Compressed oxygen in standard cylinders holds its purity as long as the cylinder doesn’t corrode, the valve seal isn’t compromised, and moisture keeps out. That means a properly stored, regularly inspected cylinder will deliver pure oxygen for years, sometimes even a decade. Reports from medical supply pros and welding suppliers confirm this: as long as original seals hold and tanks skip drastic temperature swings, oxygen stays clean.
Liquid oxygen takes a different path. Cryogenic dewars, thick with insulation, do a fine job at keeping oxygen cool enough to stay liquid, but everyday bumps—exposure to heat, moving the tank, worn valves—speed up evaporation. Hospitals watch dewars carefully, knowing loss creeps up even without leaks because no insulator stops evaporation altogether. In actual use, liquid oxygen in a home dewar can last a couple of weeks. Large stationary tanks at industrial sites stretch that out, but every tank loses a little every day.
Looking for a printed expiry date seldom finds answers. Compressed oxygen cylinders in the field still work years after filling if the tank and valve look undamaged. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s rules say oxygen concentrations must test at or above 99%—and gas doesn’t spoil in the dark, dry, sealed tank. But logistics teams set "retest dates" on cylinders, aiming to prevent corrosion or valve failure rather than worry about spoiled gas. Medical oxygen trailered across country for emergencies gets inspected every five years, and cylinders that show rust inside or scratched valves don’t get another fill.
As for liquid oxygen, practical shelf life never hits a fixed number because the liquid boils off. Once the tank goes empty, that’s it. Tanks that sit neglected and lose their vacuum insulation won’t keep the liquid cold even for a day. Here, shelf life depends mostly on how well someone manages the container and how quickly they draw off the contents.
Best practice lines up with common sense: store cylinders upright, away from direct sun, heat, flame, or excessive moisture. Regular inspections root out pitting, rust, or leaking valves before things go wrong. Check the manufacturer’s hydrostatic test stamp—if the tank’s out-of-date, swap it out with a freshly certified one. Always secure tanks during transport and storage, because a falling cylinder can shear off a valve and turn a tank into a missile fast.
Hospitals and businesses alike set their own policies for rotation and replacement. Homeowners keeping private oxygen tanks—whether for sleep apnea or home emergencies—should follow the supplier’s recommendations for delivery schedules and be wary of “bargain” refilled tanks that may come from less reputable sources.
Better education for users might cut confusion. Labels explaining not just purity but inspection dates, user safety, and signs of contamination or valve wear could help. Stricter enforcement on cylinder re-inspection keeps tanks off the market before problems start. Community oxygen supplies, like those now kept in grade schools or sports arenas, work best with routine checks.
Oxygen keeps lives going, shapes industries, and pushes limits of adventure. It’s time to treat its safe storage with the same seriousness as the drugs or devices it powers.
Oxygen storage systems support hospitals, industrial plants, and even smaller clinics that rely on a steady supply for patient care and precision manufacturing. Leaks do more than waste product—they create fire hazards and threaten worker health. Oxygen, by itself, doesn’t burn, yet it feeds combustion to the point where a tiny spark can set off an accident. Early signs of leaks, such as hissing sounds, frost at fittings, or a sudden drop in pressure, often go ignored until a problem escalates. The simple fact: undetected leaks split the difference between health and disaster.
No system stays leak-proof forever. Regular checks matter. Trained techs watch for corrosion on pipes, loose valve connections, and faulty seals. Soap solution works wonders for detecting leaks in gas lines. Bubbles show up right away if a joint leaks. Some teams carry portable oxygen detectors that sound the alarm at once, letting them shut down a system quickly. In my early days maintaining pipes, I learned not to leave off checking the oldest connectors. These create problems first, especially in places with temperature swings or vibration. Every workplace needs people who show up, know their kit, and fix small issues before leaks get large.
Constant vigilance works, but adding electronic sensors picks up leaks any human might miss. Fixed detectors track oxygen levels in the air, triggering warnings and stopping operations automatically if things look wrong. Plant operators can get alerts through their phones or control rooms, making response times shorter. Digital tools let firms store patterns of temperature, pressure, and flow. By comparing this historical data, small drops can pinpoint tiny leaks long before they threaten safety. In hospitals, this backup means oxygen reaches patients even during busy shifts.
Routine doesn’t mean rushing through. Genuine maintenance digs deeper into old gaskets, pressure relief valves, flexible hoses, or worn-out sensors. Swapping these before a leak forms costs far less than fixing fire damage later. Training workers to trust their senses, use testing sprays and, crucially, report problems lifts the whole safety culture. Companies tracking inspection logs and repair history over time see patterns in weak spots, letting them strengthen those areas before leaks start.
Some leaks come from design shortcuts or ignoring best practices. Newer systems use double-walled tanks, improved welding for joints, and automatic shut-off controls for extra layers of protection. Codes from the National Fire Protection Association and other agencies set high standards, and regular reviews by state authorities force sites to stay sharp. In one hospital I visited, color-coded pipes reduced mixing mistakes and gave staff clarity in a crisis.
Fixing leaks sounds easy, but it takes honesty—a willingness to stare down inconvenient truths. Ignoring minor leaks wastes money, endangers staff, and puts entire facilities on the line. Connecting people, sensors, and regular habits makes the difference. In the end, safety in oxygen storage lives through a blend of practical know-how and a refusal to let small problems grow dangerous.
| Names | |
| Preferred IUPAC name | dioxygen |
| Other names |
Dioxygen Oxygen, compressed Oxygen, refrigerated liquid Medical oxygen O2 |
| Pronunciation | /ˈɒksɪdʒən/ |
| Identifiers | |
| CAS Number | 7782-44-7 |
| Beilstein Reference | 3587156 |
| ChEBI | CHEBI:15379 |
| ChEMBL | CHEMBL1231429 |
| ChemSpider | 1336 |
| DrugBank | DB09161 |
| ECHA InfoCard | 03-2119486973-27-0000 |
| EC Number | 231-956-9 |
| Gmelin Reference | 121 |
| KEGG | C00007 |
| MeSH | D010100 |
| PubChem CID | 977 |
| RTECS number | RS2060000 |
| UNII | N3R3MZ7Y1V |
| UN number | UN1072 |
| CompTox Dashboard (EPA) | DTXSID2020143 |
| Properties | |
| Chemical formula | O2 |
| Molar mass | 31.999 g/mol |
| Appearance | Colorless, odorless gas |
| Odor | Odorless |
| Density | 1.31 kg/m³ |
| Solubility in water | Slightly soluble |
| log P | -0.65 |
| Magnetic susceptibility (χ) | +3.9 × 10⁻⁶ |
| Refractive index (nD) | 1.000271 |
| Dipole moment | 0.000 D |
| Thermochemistry | |
| Std molar entropy (S⦵298) | 205.0 J·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹ |
| Std enthalpy of formation (ΔfH⦵298) | 0 kJ/mol |
| Std enthalpy of combustion (ΔcH⦵298) | 0 kJ/mol |
| Pharmacology | |
| ATC code | V03AN01 |
| Hazards | |
| Main hazards | Oxidizer; greatly enhances combustion of other materials; exposure to oxygen-enriched atmosphere may cause rapid burning of skin and other tissues; high pressure gas can cause physical injury. |
| GHS labelling | GHS02, GHS04, Danger, H270, H280, P244, P370+P376, P403 |
| Pictograms | GHS04, GHS03 |
| Signal word | Danger |
| Hazard statements | Contains gas under pressure; may explode if heated. May cause or intensify fire; oxidizer. |
| NFPA 704 (fire diamond) | 3-0-0-OX |
| Lethal dose or concentration | LCLo-Human-Inhalation 214 ppm |
| NIOSH | TC 3A, TC 3AA, TC 3AL, or TC 3E |
| PEL (Permissible) | PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit) of Oxygen [Compressed Or Liquefied] is "There is no PEL for oxygen; however, oxygen-deficient atmospheres (<19.5% oxygen) are considered hazardous. |
| REL (Recommended) | 0.001 ppm |
| IDLH (Immediate danger) | IDLH: 1,300 ppm |
| Related compounds | |
| Related compounds |
Ozone Water Hydrogen peroxide Carbon dioxide Sulfur dioxide |
